Operation Iraqi Freedom: The Biggest Consequence of the American Invasion of Iraq

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     In 2003, the United States invaded Iraq on the pretext of Iraq possessing weapons of mass destruction (WMD).  According to a radio address by former president George W. Bush, "Our cause is just, the security of the nations we serve and the peace of the world. And our mission is clear, to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction, to end Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism, and to free the Iraqi people."

U.S. Solider perparees to take
the statue of Saddam Hussein.
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 What was estimated at first to be a very short and straight forward operation turned out to be a long and grueling process. Once the regime of Saddam Hussein was brought down (literally and symbolically), there was no state infrastructure left to hold Iraqi society together.

The Iraqi citizens, under threat, began to form militias to protect their own people. Iran had long wanted to see the fall of Saddam Hussein-- during the Iran-- Iraq war Ayatollah Khomeini originally refused to stop fighting until Hussein was removed from power. With Hussein out of the way, Iran was free to exert its influence on Iraq's Shi'a majority.
As a consequence of Iran exerting influence on the Shi'ites in Iraq and militias protecting their own sectarian violence skyrocketed. A series of maps shows the change of Baghdad over a few years from a largely mixed city to a predominantly Shi'a city:

The maps are color coded to show majority populations from 2003[top left], 2006 [top right], 2007[bottom left], and 2008 [bottom right].
Green= Shi'a Majority   Red= Sunni Majority  Blue= Christian Majority and Orange= Mixed
Source

A Sunni newspaper published the following political cartoon: Translations and image provided by BBC Middle East

"The cartoon depicts the map of Iraq as a pool of fuel leaked from a barrel with an Arabic phrase reading "Maliki's sectarianism" written on it. Then, a hand holding a lit torch seems to be trying to set fire to Iraq. On the sleeve, the word Iran is written, while the torch bears the name of the Iranian "al-Quds brigade".

Other evidence of rising sectarianism after the fall of Saddam Hussein includes the emergence of Sunni extremist group Da'ish (ISIS/ISIL/IS). Da'ish has been able to control a significant portion of Iraqi terrority. This would not have been possible before the U.S. invasion of Iraq.

Source: BBC

The Yazidis- Who Are They and Why Are They in Today's News?

BBC News: Who are the Yazidis in 60 Seconds

The Yazidis are a religious minority in Iraq. Though they have faced persecution throughout their history, currently they suffer at the hands of Da'ish and make an appearance in western media outlets.

Source: BBC News 

Roughly 40,000 Iraqis belonging to minority groups (mostly Yazidi) were forced to flee Da'ish to Mt. Sinjar in 2014. Here there is a severe lack of food and water. If the refugees leave the mountain for more resources, they risk violent death from members of Da'ish. There have been many pleas for humanitarian aid including one from a member of Iraqi parliment, Fiyan Dakheel, who tearfully pled, “We are being butchered under the banner of there is no God but God,”
The U.S. has provided humanitarian aid to those trapped on Mt. Sinjar but has no current plans for evacuation.

In October 2014 U.N. Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights Ivan Simonovic stated during an interview that ,"Facts are indicating that [Da'ish] actions against Yazidis may amount to attempted genocide." 

According to  an article in American Aljazeera the majority of those who have not fled the area have been shot, buried alive, sold into slavery, forced to convert, imprisoned and or sexually assaulted. 

Only Nixon Could go to China: Can Hardliners in the Middle East Create Peace ?

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It's impossible to discuss Middle Eastern politics without the Arab/ Israeli conflict popping up.

 "Is peace possible?"

"Are you in favor of a one or a two state solution?"

"But who has a rightful claim to the land?"

These are among some of the questions that crop up during talks of the Arab Israeli conflict. Let's add another question:

Can Hardliners create peace?

Given the right wing nature of Israel's current coalition led by Benjamin Netanyahu, this is a question that is highly relevant to the conflict. Previously, there were more "ideal" conditions yet progress was halted.

When Yitzhak Rabin was in office, there was genuine progress towards a peaceful resolution. He pulled the IDF from the heart of Lebanon and stationed them in security zones, was highly instrumental in the Oslo Accords for which he, Shimon Peres, and Yasser Arafat were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1994. Shortly after, in November of 1995, Rabin was assassinated by a right wing orthodox Israeli in what is now known as Rabin Square in Tel Aviv.

Rabin Square, Tel Aviv December 2012 by Jessica Lowenstein

When I was in Tel Aviv 17 years later, I spoke to my tour guide about the event. He said that progress hasn't been made, because all of the politicians fear being assassinated like Yitzhak Rabin was.

I think that if a hardliner were to put effort into the Middle East Peace process that could negate the fear of assassination because they would have more  respect from the right wing. However, there will always be radials, wether left or right wing.

One of the biggest problems with the peace process is that these claims  to the land are rooted not only in history but in religion also. It's not like when Nixon went to China for this reason.

Non state actors in the area are becoming more and more of a factor in the peace process. There cannot be a peace process without the involvement of Hamas, and possibly Hezbollah. Israel will be hesitant to acknowledge these groups because mere acknowledgment gives them a certain power. In order for there to be a sustainable peaceful resolution, these two groups will have to be addressed as well, regardless of who represents the Palestinian and Israeli people.

Ethnic Groups by State in the Tigris and Euphrates Valley and Anatolia

Individuals of Influence: Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi

Mohammed Reza Shah Time Magazine Cover
Source: Time Magazine

Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi was the shah of Iran from 1941-1971 when the Iranian Revolution overthrew his government. He came to power after Britain and Russia invaded Iran post during World War II and forced his father, Reza Shah, to abdicate.  Mohammed Reza Shah began rule of Iran at the tender age of 22. During his early years of rule Iran experiences its most democratic point in history.  

As the shah consolidated power, he wanted Iran to be the big player in the Middle East region. Due to global factors such as the demand for oil, and the Cold War Iran is an important piece on the world chest board for the west. The U.S. viewed Iran as essential to blocking the spread of communism due to her location. In the early 1970's when a Marxist group came to power in South Yemen and influenced an uprising in Dhofar, Oman Mohammed Reza Shah sent British mercenaries, weapons and his own soldiers to help put down the insurgency.

Mohammed Reza Shah was pro-Western and this is reflected in Iran's foreign policy The U.S. used soft power in the form of foreign aid to get Iran to sign the Baghdad Pact in 1955. As part of the U.S.'s new human right's initiatives under President Carter the government also pressured the Shah into making reforms in Iran. The U.S. considered him a necessary ally but was also wary of some of his riskier practices such as in 1969 when the Shah decides to challenge the border of  the Shatt al-Arab by sending an Iranian Naval ship up the river with the intention to declare war should Iraq open fire.

Dates and historical information taken from Professor Commins' Modern Iran Class, Dickinson College Fall 2014

Early Origins of the Shi'a /Sunni Divide

Islam, not unlike Christianity, isnot a homogeneous religion but split into two large 

branches Sunni and Shi'i Islam, each with their own offshoots.

While the history of the divide goes back nearly to the rise of Islam, the effects of this division are still seen to this day. 

Source: Council on Foreign Relations

Origins of the Divide

In the year 632 the prophet Muhammed died. Muhammed was more than a religious figure: through his establishment of the Muslim community or ummah, he became an important political leader in the area as well. His death left the ummah without a leader-- a position which needed to be filled. As Muhammed was the "seal of the prophets," the leader would not be a prophet himself. But how to choose? Some followers of Islam said that Muhammed had designated 'Ali-- his son-in-law, cousin, and devoted follower to be his successor. Many others insisted he had not named a successor  and companions of the prophet gathered together to appoint a  new leader.

During the meeting ('Ali was not present), 'Umar a charismatic leader from the ummah, went up to Abu Bakr and gave him his support as leader or khalifa [successor]. According to the shiite tradition, 'Ali gave Abu Bakr his support after he was elected in oder to preserve the unity of the ummah. 

'Umar Source: Wikipedia 

Abu Bakr served as caliph from 632-634, and 'Umar is chosen as his successor during the period of 634-644. After 'Umar is killed by a Persian slave in 644 there are two strong candidates for khalifa: 'Uthman and Ali. Ultimately, 'Uthman is selected to succeed 'Umar and serves from 644-656 when he is killed during riots by his own people. 

'Uthman Source: Wikipedia

'Ali succeeded 'Uthamn in 656 during a troubled time in the caliphate. Some of the ummah felt that Ali had not performed his duties in avenging the death of 'Utham. Talha and ibn al Zubayr found Ayesha, one of the prophet's widows, and together they plotted against 'Ali. This resulted in the Battle of the Camel near Basr in present day Iraq. Talha and ibn al Zubayr are killed and Ayesha returned to medina. This divided the ummah.

'Ali: Source: Wikipedia

'Ali realized the consequences of this division and sought the support of Mu'awiya, the governor of Syria, who was well respected.  Mu'awiya did not feel that 'Ali had properly avenged the death of 'Uthman and refused his support. The two met in battle in 657, known as the Battle of Siffin. Mu'awiya's forces were loosing and at the suggestion of one of his military commanders, 'Amr ibn Al-As, had his men place pages of the Qu'aran on their lances and hold them up, which confused the opposition and stopped the fighting. 'Ali and Mu'awiya decided to enter into negotiations and each send a man to deliberate as to wether or not Ali had fully avenged the death of 'Uthman.

Negotiations determined 'Ali had not fully avenged the death of 'Uthman. Some of the followers of 'Ali, known after as the kharijites, left his camp after this incident because they felt he was at fault for allowing things to go into negotiation. 'Ali starts to massacre some of the kharijites which causing more trouble in the ummah. He also decides to go after Mu'awiya which many find dishonorable as the negotiations were legally binding. In 661, Ali is stabbed to death in a mosque near Kufa.

                                         The Imamate

Source: University of North Carolina Chapel Hill

Shi'ias believe in a form of government of the caliphate known as the Imamate, starting with 'Ali. The Imams are religious and political leaders who are often given some deity like qualities such as the ability to perform miracles.  Arguments over who was the true Imam  have caused further branching of Shiism. 

Source: Wikipedia

The Caliph

Sunnis believed in the caliph as a political leader, and the ulema or religious scholars as the spiritual leaders of the ummah. 

Conclussions

This is a very basic overview of the early origins of the Shi'a/ Sunni divide. There are many more events that take place in Islamic history that deepen these divides but this is a blog post and not a history book.  It is also important to note that while there is a schism not all Shi'as and Sunnis live in rivalries. In some places they do co-exist peacefully, and even intermarry. 

Historical dates and information taken from Professor Pulcini's Islam lecture, Fall 2014 at Dickinson College.

Water Footprints

Water is an essential and irreplaceable part of life. Even if life on Earth could be mysteriously sustained without water, many of our day to day activities would be disrupted. Water is used to produce meat and crops which we then consume, for bathing ourselves and cleaning objects, in religious rituals, for transportation, to produce industrial goods, and the list continues. In short, without water, there would be no hamburgers, no iPhones, no cars, no tea or coffee, etc...

Source: National Geographic's Water FootPrint Calculator

Source: Water Footprint Network

The amount of water an individual consumes per day/week/year is actually a measurement that can be calculated. The result is called a water footprint. Both National Water Footprint Network and National Geographic have tools that can calculate your water footprint. Each tool uses slightly different information to provide their answers so it's worth visiting both.

Possible Failures of the Data

I am not sure how accurate my results are as I live on a college campus. I personally do not wash my own dishes but a worker for the caf must use water to wash the dishes I used. I don't choose what food is purchased/ cooked but I do have some choices in meals once I enter the caf. I also do not water the lawn but it is possible that Dickinson College does.  However, once could argue that the school would be doing this services for another student even if I never matriculated.

 Another discrepancy I found was expenditure on material goods. I tend to be a careful shopper and buy either second hand or with sales/ coupons so I end up spending less per item. It is possible in the long run that I am a bigger consumer than the average American but my water scores dropped very low when I input my personal expenditure in dollars. I used the year 2014 for my calculation but in terms of travel it is a bit of an odd year for me: as much as I enjoy it I don't typically fly from New York To Istanbul to Casablanca (roundtrip), New York to London to Madrid (roundtrip), from Casablanca to Tunis (roundtrip), from Ouarzazate to Casablanca,  and Philadelphia to Miami to Lima (roundtrip). Nor do I typically take the ferry to and from Spain, or the bus/train around more or less all of Morocco.  I do however, typically do a lot of driving for work during the summer months as I photograph at different universities/ races.  I also wash my hands a lot at my other part time job (hosting/bussing tables at a restaurant) and I included this in my calculations because I work on average four nights a week.

Personal Consumption compared to Others

Using google's converter tool, I converted 1,529 gallons of water per day to 558,085 gallons per year to approximately 2113 cubic meters per year. This is over twice the amount of water calculated by the other tool (980 cubic meters per year). However, according to National Geographic's Measures, I am well below U.S. average  in my personal water consumption.

According to the National Water Footprint Network, the water footprint per capita in Iran is 

1866 cubic meters per year. This is higher than the global average (1385 cubic meters per year). My score on the National Water Footprint Network's calculator was approximately half of the consumption in Iran. According to National Geographic's measures I consume 247 cubic meters per year more than the average Iranian. Averaging my two scores out gives a consumption of 1,546 cubic meters per year which while higher than the global average is still below the Iranian levels of consumption.

Turkey's water footprint per capita is 1,642 cubic meters per year, according to the National Water Footprint Network. Again, my score with the same calculator falls well below this average at 980 cubic meters. My score with National Geographic is 471 cubic meters more per year than the average Turk. Averaging my two water scores places me 96 cubic meters per year under the Turkish average. 

Source: The Economist

There was no data provided for Iraq.

Reflections

In the US though water is considered an abundant resource, there is a lot of emphasize on sustainability and conservation in modern US culture. Dickinson College places a water bottle tax to encourage reusable water bottles. The school caf has a big focus on composting and there are no trash cans in site.Everything is sorted by school workers into appropriate bins. I am not sure if there is this same emphasize in my region of study. Both Iran and Turkey have a fair amount of fresh water compared to the rest of the region but logically water conservation is in everybody's best interest.